Indigenous Canada: History and Reconciliation

The Heart of the Land: The First Nations, Inuit, and Métis

Long before “Canada” was a line on a map, the land was home to a vast tapestry of distinct nations. From the Haida on the West Coast to the Mi’kmaq in the East, and the Inuit across the Arctic, these societies were governed by complex legal systems, rich oral traditions, and a deep spiritual connection to the environment.

Today, these diverse groups are collectively recognized as Indigenous peoples, encompassing First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. Their stories aren’t just artifacts of the past; they are the foundation of the country’s identity.

The Treaties: Promises on Parchment

Between 1701 and 1923, the British Crown and the Canadian government signed a series of treaties with various First Nations. These were intended to be sacred agreements between sovereign nations to share the land and resources.

The Intent: Many Indigenous leaders signed treaties to ensure the survival of their people amidst a changing world, expecting a partnership of mutual respect.
The Reality: The Canadian government often viewed these treaties as “land surrenders.” This fundamental disagreement has led to decades of legal battles over land rights and resource management that continue to this day.

The Reserve System: Geographic Segregation

Under the Indian Act of 1876, the government forcibly relocated First Nations people onto small parcels of land known as reserves.

The goal was twofold: to clear the way for European settlement and to exert total control over Indigenous lives. For decades, the “Pass System” even prevented people from leaving their reserve without written permission from a government agent. While reserves remain centers of community and culture today, many continue to face systemic challenges, including inadequate housing and long-term boil-water advisories—stark reminders of historical neglect.

The Darkest Chapter: Residential Schools

Perhaps the most painful part of Canada’s history is the Residential School System. For over 150 years, more than 150,000 Indigenous children were Rewarded removed from their families and sent to boarding schools, often run by churches.

“To kill the Indian in the child.” — This was the stated goal of the system.

The schools were sites of systemic abuse, malnutrition, and the suppression of Indigenous languages and cultures. The discovery of unmarked graves at former school sites in recent years has forced a national reckoning with this legacy of “cultural genocide.” The trauma of these schools is intergenerational, affecting families who never even stepped foot in a classroom.

Where We Stand Today: The Path to Reconciliation

In modern society, Indigenous peoples are in a period of powerful reclamation. We are seeing a “Renaissance” of Indigenous art, law, and political influence.

TRC Calls to Action: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) provided 94 “Calls to Action” to redress the legacy of residential schools and advance reconciliation.
Self-Governance: More nations are moving away from the Indian Act and reclaiming the right to govern their own lands, education, and healthcare.
Cultural Resurgence: From the revitalization of the Michif and Inuktitut languages to Indigenous-led climate activism, the narrative is shifting from “victimhood” to sovereignty and strength.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) released its final report in 2015, which included 94 Calls to Action. These recommendations were designed to redress the legacy of residential schools and advance the process of Canadian reconciliation.

They are broadly categorized into two main groups: Legacy (addressing ongoing harms) and Reconciliation (transforming the relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples).

I. Legacy (1–42)

These calls focus on repairing the damage caused by the residential school system and addressing systemic inequities.

Child Welfare (1–5)

Reducing the number of Indigenous children in care.
Providing adequate resources for Indigenous communities to keep families together.
Ensuring social workers and courts are trained on the history and impacts of residential schools.

Education (6–12)

Repealing Section 43 of the Criminal Code (the “Corporal Punishment Clause”).
Eliminating the discrepancy in funding for Indigenous students.
Drafting new education legislation that incorporates Indigenous languages and cultures.

Language and Culture (13–17)

Acknowledging that Indigenous rights include language rights.
Appointing an Aboriginal Languages Commissioner.
Enabling survivors to reclaim names changed by the residential school system on government documents.

Health (18–24)

Acknowledging that the current state of Aboriginal health is a direct result of previous government policies.
Closing the gap in health outcomes (infant mortality, mental health, life expectancy).
Increasing the number of Indigenous professionals in the healthcare field.

Justice (25–42)

Improving lawyer training regarding Indigenous history.
Addressing the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in custody.
Reforming the program for “Aboriginal Justice” to better reflect traditional practices.

II. Reconciliation (43–94)

These calls focus on changing the legal, social, and professional structures of Canada to foster a better future.

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (43–44)

Adopting and implementing UNDRIP as the framework for reconciliation.

Royal Proclamation and Covenant of Reconciliation (45–47)

Issuing a Royal Proclamation to reaffirm the nation-to-nation relationship.

Equity in the Legal System and Public Service (48–57)

Ensuring all levels of government, including the police and civil service, receive cultural competency training.

Church Apologies and Reconciliation (58–61)

Formal apologies from religious denominations and the Pope for their roles in residential schools.
Funding for community-controlled healing projects.

Education for Reconciliation (62–65)

Making age-appropriate curriculum on residential schools mandatory for all students (K–12).
Establishing senior-level positions in government dedicated to Indigenous content in education.

Youth Programs, Museums, and Archives (66–70)

Funding for community-based youth programs.
Reviewing museum policies to ensure compliance with UNDRIP.

Missing Children and Burial Information (71–76)

Developing and maintaining a national residential school student death register.
Working with families and communities to locate and document unmarked graves.

Commemoration, Media, and Sports (77–91)

Establishing a National Day for Truth and Reconciliation (September 30).
Increasing Indigenous representation in media and the CBC.
Ensuring Indigenous athletes have access to national sports systems.

Business and Reconciliation (92)

Calling on the corporate sector to adopt UNDRIP and provide education to staff on Indigenous history.

Newcomers to Canada (93–94)

Updating the citizenship test and oath to reflect the Treaties and the history of Indigenous Peoples.

Progress Tracking

While all 94 calls were issued in 2015, they are at various stages of implementation. Organizations like the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation (NCTR) track these updates yearly.

The Silence That Must Be Broken: Understanding the MMIWG Crisis in Canada

For decades, a shadow has stretched across Canada—one that the families of thousands of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis women have lived within every single day. The crisis of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls, and 2SLGBTQI+ people (MMIWG2S+) is not just a dark chapter of our history; it is a contemporary human rights emergency that demands our collective attention and action.

As we look at the landscape of Canada in 2026, the statistics remain a sobering reminder of the work left to do.

The Reality by the Numbers

To understand the scale of this crisis, we must look at the data, though many advocates argue that even these figures are undercounts due to systemic gaps in reporting.

Disproportionate Violence: Indigenous women make up approximately 5% of the female population in Canada, yet they continue to account for a staggering 16% of all female homicides.
A Growing Gap: While homicide rates for non-Indigenous women have generally declined over the last few decades, the rate for Indigenous women has remained tragically stable. Today, an Indigenous woman is still roughly 6 times more likely to be murdered than a non-Indigenous woman.
Human Trafficking: Recent 2025 research highlights a terrifying intersection: Indigenous women and girls represent over 50% of human trafficking victims in Canada.

Beyond the Statistics: Root Causes

The 2019 National Inquiry into MMIWG was clear in its conclusion: this crisis is the result of “persistent and deliberate human and Indigenous rights violations.” It is not an accidental phenomenon but a product of:

Historical Trauma: The legacy of residential schools, the Sixties Scoop, and the Indian Act created a cycle of displacement and poverty.
Systemic Racism: A history of police and judicial systems dismissing the disappearances of Indigenous women has led to a “culture of impunity” for perpetrators.
Economic Marginalization: Barriers to safe housing and healthcare often force women into vulnerable situations, particularly in urban “hotspots” like Winnipeg and Edmonton.

“The steps to end and redress this genocide must be no less monumental than the combination of systems and actions that has worked to maintain colonial violence for generations.” — Reclaiming Power and Place: Final Report

What is Being Done?

In 2026, the conversation has shifted toward the 231 Calls for Justice. While the federal government has committed billions through the Federal Pathway, many Indigenous leaders point out that “on-the-ground” change is moving far too slowly.

Key initiatives currently in development include:

Red Dress Alerts: A specialized notification system (similar to Amber Alerts) designed specifically for missing Indigenous women and girls.
Indigenous Data Sovereignty: Efforts to allow Indigenous communities to collect and manage their own data to ensure no sister is ever “lost” in a flawed system again.

How You Can Help

Ending this crisis requires more than just government policy; it requires a shift in the Canadian consciousness.

Educate Yourself: Read the 231 Calls for Justice.
Support Grassroots Organizations: Groups like the Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC) and local friendship centres provide direct support to survivors and families.
Listen to the Families: Amplify the voices of those who are searching for their loved ones. Their stories are the heartbeat of this movement.

The red dress has become a symbol of those who are no longer with us. By wearing it, and by speaking up, we ensure that their names are remembered and that the silence is finally, permanently broken.

The story of Indigenous peoples in Canada is not over. It is being rewritten every day by activists, elders, and a new generation of youth who refuse to be defined solely by the shadows of the past.

Canadian Country Life